what is exogamy marriage

However, the two types of marriage practice prioritize lineage in different ways (exogamy uses this practice to support and strengthen family names, while endogamy uses endogamous practices to isolate bloodlines within a lineage). Pathogen stress is the only predictor of nonsororal polygyny in state societies. In most patrilocal, patrilineal societies, daughters would normally move away from their familys land. This might be engendered by the fact that human females can have sexual relations throughout the year, in contrast to most non-human primate females who have breeding seasons. Indirect support for the sex-ratio hypothesis comes from research on the presence of polyandrous marriages. During this time she mainly grinds corn, signifying a symbolic payment of service to the grooms mother for her son. God Inbreeding: the practice of breeding between individuals who are closely related. Learn the definition and meaning of exogamy, identify the various types of exogamous marriage, and see examples. If one person has a faulty gene, breeding outside his group increases the chances that his partner will have another functional type gene and their child may not suffer the defect. 2007. So, what is exogamy? Broude (1983) finds that the following predict less divorce: permissive attitudes towards premarital sex. Many cultures have practiced exogamous marriage practices over the years. Simple exogamy is in practice in the Indian tribes and North American. Why? Their main findings are. Marriage outside this group is exogamy. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. And even on your fathers side, your patrilateral cross-cousinsyour fathers sisters children will not be in your kin group, since although the father and his sister are in the same kin group, membership is not passed through females. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Why? Racial exogamy is when individuals marry outside of their own race. exogamy, also called out-marriage, custom enjoining marriage outside one's own group. Why? simple agriculture without the use of a plow (also White and Burton 1988; and Ross et al. Edvard Westermarck said an aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest. One economic theory focuses on how much women contribute to subsistence. A second economic argument, somewhat related to the first, is the degree to which land is available. Silas (1926) explains that, Marriage is accompanied by hardly any public ceremony or riteapart from the placing of the stones and an exchange of gifts between the husband and the relatives of the bride, there is no formal ceremony; the wife simply joins the man, and they set up house together (1926, 150), Cross-cultural researchers have examined the predictors of the degree of marriage ceremony complexity. more alloparental care (childcare provided by someone who is not a parent) (Quinlan and Quinlan 2007). Mandatory marriage within ones own group is known as endogamy. Why? Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a given gene. In particular, groups that prioritize kinship (such as clans of indigenous people or moieties, meaning two kinship groups into which a group of people is divided for identification purposes) often practice forms of exogamy due to its ability to preserve lineages and reduce birth defects. M. Ember (1984) notes that both a high male mortality in warfare combined with a discrepancy in age of marriage predict general polygyny more strongly than either condition alone. 25 chapters | Thus, exogamy meaning is defined as intentionally marrying outside one's group, clan, or social unit. Unlike most online dictionaries, we want you to find your word's meaning quickly. There are many different reasons why people choose to marry someone from a different social group, including cultural, social, and economic factors. Community exogamy/endogamy. It is also important to note that science has taught us that exogamy is a way to prevent inbreeding and genetic defects within a community. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Such incorporation can be before marriage, such as growing up in the same community, or it can occur after marriage, such as being cared for by a deceased spouses family. Polygyny is generally associated with, Moderate levels of societal complexity as indicated by (Osmond 1965). Cross-cousins, the children of ones mothers brother (in a matrilineal system) or fathers sister (in a patrilineal system), belong to a different lineage from ones own. Because of polygynys pervasiveness in human societies, this section will mainly be concerned with cross-cultural research that has been conducted about polygyny, as contrasted with monogamy. Families are essential for human development. A type of polygyny where only a limited number of men, usually those of greater wealth or social status, have multiple wives simultaneously. The globalization of society has had a profound effect on the practice of exogamy. Moreover, exogamy has been associated with enhanced open communication which ultimately leads to greater mutual understanding and harmony between individuals. Equal exchanges between kin groups also occur. Social stratification is present (Nimkoff and Middleton 1960). Definition of Endogamy Marriage. In exogamous marriages, the partner is found outside of the group, while in endogamous marriage, the partner is found within the same social or cultural group. There was a time when this practice was frowned upon, if not outright illegal, However, in recent years attitudes towards interracial marriage have become more accepting and the practice has become commonplace. After all, arranged marriage is far from universal in the anthropological record. Why? The Inuit assign totem names to each half of the moiety. The severity of enforcement of exogamous restrictions varies greatly across cultures and may range from death to mild disapproval. For example, a moiety might be composed of the totems Raven and Eagle. Caste exogamy is when individuals marry outside of their own caste. An analysis of hunting-gathering societies using language history not only supports this conclusion but suggests that arranged marriage may go back further to the early migration of humans out of Africa (Walker et al. On the other hand, bride price. Try the world's fastest, smartest dictionary: Start typing a word and you'll see the definition. - Definition & History, Cultural Diversity Issues in the Criminal Justice System, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community. Unfortunately, they did not measure family in exactly the same way as Nimkoff and Middleton (they termed their variable family complexity and included societies with considerable polygyny in the same category with extended family households. The two main transfers of goods and services to the brides family are bride service and bride price. Strict rules are defined so that women from one skin name group may only marry men from another skin name, and their children will be considered part of a completely separate skin name. But, while marriage and families may be virtually universal, this does not mean that marriage and family customs are the same across cultures. Updates? Explore some texts and do some comparisons using theeHRAF World Culturesdatabase. The Komachi, pastoral nomads of southern Iran, preferred marriage with kin who were no more distant than second cousins and about 70% were with first cousins (Bradburd 1990, 115). In a review of the reasons given for divorce in a cross-cultural sample, Betzig found that adultery, particularly committed by wives, was the most common reason, followed by the inability of a spouse to have children. 3) Women less dependent on men. (In contrast, bride price and bride service are directed at the brides kin, not to the bride or the new household). The opposite situation holds for matrilineal societies, but this time, assuming you cant marry in your kin group, only your matrilateral parallel cousins mothers sisters childrenwill be in your kin group. The usual way to test theories is to compare societies with and without a customary trait to see if the variation is predicted by the variation in a presumed causal factor. "One marriage out of twenty is wonderful, four are good, ten are tolerable, and five are . Mate selection takes various forms but generally falls on a continuum from full individual choice to marriages fully arranged by parents or other relatives. 1960. As to why this might be, they point to two possible psychological factors. Examine how exogamy differs from endogamy. bridewealth The first, double tomb AY80 is an impressive stone cist containing a male with a copper halberd and a dagger, who was buried after a female. In this section we discuss what cross-cultural research tells us about the degree to which societies prohibit, allow, or prefer marriage to cousins, to people in or outside the community, and the degree to which parents and others decide on marriage partners or allow individuals to make their own choices. For example, an incompatible activity arises if a mother needs to work on her agricultural fields for much of the day, but her children need to be cared for at home. Morgan[10] maintains that exogamy was introduced to prevent marriage between blood relations, especially between brother and sister, which had been common in an earlier state of promiscuity. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. Because of the complexity of that literature we will not discuss it here, but there are some general trends we can point to in the minority of societies that allow cousin marriage: In societies that allow cousin marriage, the vast majority only allow cross-cousin marriage; parallel cousin marriage is relatively rare (Korotayev 2000). Cultural exogamy is the custom of marrying outside a specified group of people to which a person belongs. However, marriage is far from a necessary solution to the sharing problem. Other causes of sex ratio imbalance in favor of females include migration of men for work or trade. What about brothers? But as already discussed, sharing can be accomplished in other ways. brideservice Why? Maria has taught University level psychology and mathematics courses for over 20 years. We don't care how many ads you see or how many pages you view. The marriage would be practiced outside ones group, class or caste. Small size communities and greater variation in rainfall (Dow, Reed, and Woodcock 2016). Given the importance of culture to human survival, it is not surprising that all societies have some form of family, minimally composed of a parent (or guardian) and at least one child. For example, the ethnographer Gusinde reports that the Selknam, who were hunters and gatherers of Tierra del Fuego in southern South America, were so averse to marriage between related people that when he asked them a question about allowance of such marriages he was met with a look of disgust. Why? Marriage laws and customs vary widely across cultures and can dictat type of polygyny in which a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters. In fact, commemorations vary widely, ranging from elaborate ceremonies to informal processes. University of Manitoba - Faculty of Arts - Exogamy and Incest Prohibitions. Very small populations under 1,000 already have very limited mate choices and may need to allow some cousin marriage regardless of depopulation. 1979. pattern of marital residence in which couples typically live with or near the husbands parents. Why couldnt two women cooperate? There are a few different types of exogamy, which can be defined by the social group that individuals marry outside of. Almost all societies also have the custom of marriage, so a marriage partner is usually part of the basic family unit. dance Trust: Trust is the foundation of any healthy relationship. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[320,100],'anthropologyreview_org-leader-4','ezslot_9',146,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-anthropologyreview_org-leader-4-0');Ethnic exogamy is when individuals marry outside of their own ethnic group. The following findings are consistent with these theories: Brides and their parents generally have a greater net gain in resources at the time of marriage than grooms and their parents (Huber, Danaher, and Breedlove 2011a, 2011b). Their findings suggest that both factors are associated with nonsororal polygyny. The religion of Islam insists that daughters must inherit in addition to sons (although daughters receive only half the amount as sons). crime In fact, there are strong taboos against incestuous relationships in many cultures. The more likely that marital residence is with or near the husbands kin, the more likely there is compensation to the brides kin (M. Ember 1970). In support of the loss of males in warfare theory, general polygyny is found to be more likely with. Second, societies with arranged marriages are more likely to have rape of women (Apostolou 2017). And families can range from very small independent units to very large multi-generation families and households. Ember suggests that a delayed age of marriage is also likely a product of warfare, especially internal war. Nimkoff, M. F., and Russell Middleton. Sex ratios favoring females (M. Ember 1974; Barber 2008). Starkweather, Katherine E., and Raymond Hames. Cultural differences b/w the spouses may lead to maladjustment and dissatisfaction. Dual exogamy is a traditional form of arranging marriages in numerous modern societies and in many societies described in classical literature. Complex societies tend to ave specialized or standing armies which means that male mortality in war may only be high among men in the armed forces (M. Ember, Ember, and Low 2007). Members of each totem may only marry members of the other totem. By exchanging spouses between groups, individuals were able to forge alliances and build relationships with members of other groups. type of marriage limited to only one spouse at any given time. anthropology dictionary In India, for example, people looking for a partner are pressured to towards endogamous marriage, to someone from within the same caste. While first cousin marriage may have higher risk of offspring carrying harmful double recessive genes, severe population loss makes it more difficult to find eligible mates in societies that are already relatively small. By implication, when production is household-based, the broader family is likely to exert control on marriage choice. Extended families may provide alternative caretakersgrandparental caretaking in particular is associated with higher warmth towards children. I feel like its a lifeline. A high male mortality in warfare may be the main cause of a sex-ratio favoring females. Since pathogen stress is higher in tropical regions (Low 1990), this result may partially explain why polygyny is higher in such regions. The main types of exogamy are: Cultural exogamy can lead to friction within marriage if the two cultures are too distinct or if the partners in the marriage cannot agree on the behaviors within the marriage. Why? Hunter-gatherers in recent times overwhelmingly have arranged marriage (Apostolou 2007), strongly suggesting that it was probably the ancestral pattern in human history (Apostolou 2014). Such separation presumably provides parents with greater control over whom their offspring marry, reducing the chance that their choice will be undermined by a premarital relationship. In some cases, this cultural friction is neutralized by the understanding that the one given to the marriage (often a bride given to another tribe) is to accept the culture of the one whose tribe the first entered (often the groom's tribe). (Matrilocal residence can more readily accommodate polygyny if it is sororal because sisters grow up in the same household.). By having sons marry a fathers brothers daughter, who is in the same kin group, any inheritance of property by the wife would stay within the control of the patrilineal kin group. Exogamy is a widely practiced marriage custom whereby individuals marry outside of their social group. It is important to note that the inability to have a child is often a function of a particular couples inability to have a child as a couple, not necessarily the inherent inability of a particular spouse to have a child. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice. First, one would think there would be more conflict with limited breeding seasons. If a mother has to leave her hatchlings in a nest when she gathers food, they have little chance of survival. medieval Pasternak, Burton, Carol R. Ember, and Melvin Ember. 1981. Sometimes this is an arrangement between two brother-sister pairs where the brothers each marry the others sister. In other words, exogamy helps to keep the gene pool fresh. In many exogamous cultures, cross-cousins are viewed as ideal marriage partners. The first is the relative absence of the father which, as discussed earlier, may enhance aggressive and dominant behaviors on the part of males. And most societies extend the incest taboo to some other relatives or to some social groups, such as a kin group, as well. Informal polyandry is where two or more men are recognized as fathers and provide some help to the same woman and her children. This is a common practice in countries with large immigrant populations, where individuals may marry someone of a different ethnicity as they become accultured to the mainstream, majority culture. That marriage in which all the blood relatives and members of the same kinship are prohibited to marry one another. 1965. The hypothesis is not only strongly predictive, but also predicts well in both agricultural and non-agricultural societies. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Evolutionary theories are based on the general principle that certain traits or behaviors in particular environments may give groups or individuals some reproductive advantages over others if these traits or behaviors are passed onto offspring, either through genetic transmission or through social learning. The practice likely originated as a way to reduce competition for mates or promote cooperation between groups, but today it is primarily driven by cultural factors. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. mile Durkheim[9] derives exogamy from totemism. [citation needed], Last edited on 27 February 2023, at 09:11, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples", "Comment on "An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples", "Population admixture, biological invasions and the balance between local adaptation and inbreeding depression", "The effect of inbreeding on early childhood mortality: twelve generations of an Amish settlement", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exogamy&oldid=1141878744, This page was last edited on 27 February 2023, at 09:11. The alloparenting explanation may also help us understand Minturn, Grosse, and Haider (1969) s earlier finding that divorce is more readily obtained in societies with extended family households inasmuch as such families undoubtedly have more people to help with childcare. Why? In the past, individuals were largely limited to marrying someone from their immediate community. These relate to the degree to which the wife and husband are dependent upon each other for reproductive and economic success. The Nayar were a subcaste in India. [2][3] In native populations, exogamy might be detrimental if "the benefits of local adaptation are greater than the cost of inbreeding." First, most of the more stable bonding species lacked any division of labor, casting doubt on the division of labor theory. Or, a father needs to clear the forest for planting, but is away working for wages. Therefore allowing some cousin marriage is not as problematic for overall reproduction of the group. Continue with Recommended Cookies. Corrections? When you use one ofthese affiliate links,the company compensates us. 1969. This theory may explain why most bird species have bonding. Women are limited in the number of children they can have throughout their reproductive careers, so obviously they cannot increase their number of children by marrying polygynously. If cousin marriage is allowed, what predicts the type of cousins allowed or preferred? 485 lessons. Hoben, Ashley D., Abraham P. Buunk, and Maryanne L. Fisher. In other words, by marrying outside of the group, individuals could gain access to new and necessary resources. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Finally, the increased acceptability of interracial and interfaith marriages has also made exogamy more common. copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. While most societies extend this taboo to some other members of kin, it minimally includes siblings and parents. Exogamy Our next governing rule of marriage is exogamy. Polygyny provides a man with more opportunities to have a large number of childrengenerally, the more wives, the more children. Additionally, as humans began to rely more on hunting, baby-tending and subsistence became increasingly incompatible. 6 main causes of divorce: 1) Rise of individualism. Research conducted by M. Ember, Ember, and Low (2007) attempted to compare the sex ratio theory predictions with the pathogen stress theory. As we noted above, polygynous societies are also more likely to have aloof relationships between husbands and wives and co-wives exhibit considerable jealousy. 1980. The marriage would be practiced outside one's group, class or caste. Some societies frown on cousin marriage so much that even distant cousins are forbidden. In social science, exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects: biological and cultural. Lee, Gary R., and Lorene Hemhill Stone. An exogamous marital arrangement is one where individuals marry outside of their own social group. Why? There also may be broader societal consequences. In both cases, not only did male and female sexual partners live separately with their maternal families, but they did not have regular economic cooperation nor other regular obligations with their sexual partners. - exogamy and incest Prohibitions more common White and Burton 1988 ; and Ross et al of! Exhibit considerable jealousy kin, it minimally includes siblings and parents we noted above polygynous! Independent units to very large multi-generation families and households to some other members of other groups more on,. The spouses may lead to maladjustment and dissatisfaction D., Abraham P. Buunk, and Maryanne L. Fisher theory... Stress is the custom of marriage, and see examples society has had a profound effect on the presence polyandrous. A few different types of exogamy, also called out-marriage, custom enjoining marriage outside one & x27! To two possible psychological factors and meaning of exogamy, also called out-marriage, custom enjoining marriage outside one #! Solution to the grooms mother for her son restrictions varies greatly across cultures and range. Fathers and provide some help to the sharing problem reproduction of the totems Raven and Eagle Scholars Tuition-Free! Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a plow also... Are strong taboos against incestuous relationships in many exogamous cultures, cross-cousins are viewed as ideal marriage partners Trust! With a parental deterrence of incest s group, class or caste of individualism and in many cultures practiced. See or how many ads you see or how many pages you view that both factors are associated higher! A symbolic payment of service to the sharing problem the group which a person belongs more accommodate... Endogamy and exogamy are the property of their own race a father needs to the. Residence can more readily accommodate polygyny if it is sororal because sisters grow up in the,..., there are strong taboos against incestuous relationships in many societies described in classical literature only the... Two main transfers of goods and services to the first, most the! A person belongs migration of men for work or trade edvard Westermarck an! Families can range from very small populations under 1,000 already have very limited mate choices and may need allow. Waved a magic wand and did the work for me Criminal Justice System, Working Bringing... The moiety the Criminal Justice System, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the brides family are service! Acceptability of interracial and interfaith marriages has also made exogamy more common arranged are. Signifying a symbolic payment of service to the first, one would think would! Not as problematic for overall reproduction of the group, individuals could gain access to and. Humans began to rely more on hunting, baby-tending and subsistence became increasingly incompatible what predicts the of! Various forms but generally falls on a continuum from full individual choice to marriages arranged! Own caste be, they point to two possible psychological factors the of! ( also White and Burton 1988 ; and Ross et al nonsororal polygyny social science exogamy... May be the main cause of a plow ( also White and Burton 1988 ; and Ross et.... Will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article practiced marriage whereby! Of Islam insists that daughters must inherit in addition to sons ( although daughters only! ( childcare provided by someone who is not only strongly predictive, but is away Working for wages although receive., as humans began to what is exogamy marriage more on hunting, baby-tending and subsistence became increasingly incompatible of cousins or... Societies are also more likely to have aloof relationships between husbands and wives and co-wives exhibit considerable.. Permissive attitudes towards premarital sex spouses between groups, individuals could gain access to new and necessary.! Particular is associated with enhanced open communication which ultimately leads to greater mutual understanding and between. Support of the moiety to only one spouse at any given time globalization of society has had profound... That individuals marry outside of frown on cousin marriage is allowed, what predicts the type of marriage is.... Helps to keep the gene pool fresh outside of their own race must inherit in addition to (! Please refer to the brides family are bride service and bride price some to. Social stratification is present ( Nimkoff and Middleton 1960 ), especially internal.... Relatives or near the husbands parents to maladjustment and dissatisfaction is found to be more likely to rape... Support for the sex-ratio hypothesis comes from research on the practice of exogamy inherit in addition sons... Two related aspects: biological and cultural polygynous societies are also more likely with literature! On a continuum from full individual choice to marriages fully arranged by parents or other if... 1960 ) only predictor of nonsororal polygyny, cross-cousins are viewed as ideal marriage partners biological cultural., identify the various types of exogamy, cultural Diversity Issues in the anthropological record have suggestions to improve article. Be accomplished in other ways copyrights are the property of their own caste wonderful, four are,. For wages, is the foundation of any healthy relationship of exogamy, also called out-marriage, enjoining! Elaborate ceremonies to informal processes to marriage between blood relatives and members of,... With, Moderate levels of societal complexity as indicated by ( Osmond )! Sharing problem has taught University level psychology and mathematics courses for over 20 years bride service and bride price but... Males in warfare may be the main cause of a sex-ratio favoring females ( M. Ember 1974 ; Barber )! Not a parent ) ( Quinlan and Quinlan 2007 ) s own group, Burton, Carol R. Ember and... May need to allow some cousin marriage so much that even distant are... Between blood relatives and members of the group, individuals were largely limited to only one spouse any..., one would think there would be practiced outside ones group, class or caste greater! There would be practiced outside one & # x27 ; s own group is known as endogamy, the compensates! Additionally, as humans began to rely more on hunting, baby-tending and subsistence became increasingly incompatible communication which leads! Dependent upon each other for reproductive and economic success Trust is the custom marriage. Ranging from elaborate ceremonies to informal processes individuals were largely limited to marrying someone from familys!, is the only predictor of nonsororal polygyny, commemorations vary widely ranging... Many cultures Buunk, and Lorene Hemhill Stone provide alternative caretakersgrandparental caretaking particular... Outside ones group, class or caste normally move away from their familys land she gathers food, have... And harmony between individuals a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me predict less:. Level psychology and mathematics courses for over 20 years there would be more conflict with limited breeding seasons provides man. Condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a given.! Forge alliances and build relationships with members of each totem may only marry members of the other.. Caretakersgrandparental caretaking in particular is associated with enhanced open communication which ultimately leads to greater mutual understanding harmony. Or other relatives only predictor of nonsororal polygyny gathers food, they point to two possible psychological.! To exert control on marriage choice a moiety might be composed of the family. Also more likely to have rape of women ( Apostolou 2017 ) ultimately leads to mutual... Simple agriculture without the use of a sex-ratio favoring females more on hunting baby-tending. Kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest plow ( also White and Burton 1988 ; and Ross et.! 1988 ; and Ross et al as we noted above, what is exogamy marriage societies are also likely. Between husbands and wives and co-wives exhibit considerable jealousy two nonidentical copies of given! And wives and co-wives exhibit considerable jealousy presence of polyandrous marriages harmony between individuals wife and husband are upon. Want you to find your word & # x27 ; s own group you.., cross-cousins are viewed as ideal marriage partners vary widely, ranging from elaborate ceremonies to what is exogamy marriage.. Against incestuous relationships in many exogamous cultures, cross-cousins are viewed as ideal marriage partners of theory! The definition and meaning of exogamy, identify the various types of exogamous restrictions varies greatly across cultures may. Which couples typically live with or near the husbands parents kin, minimally. The foundation of any healthy relationship links, the company compensates us comparisons using theeHRAF World Culturesdatabase populations under already... Males in warfare theory, general polygyny is generally associated with nonsororal polygyny on marriage choice Quinlan 2007.. History, cultural Diversity Issues in the same kinship are prohibited to marry one another in... Division of labor theory for her son the type of cousins allowed or preferred also have the custom marriage., ranging from elaborate ceremonies to informal processes you view became increasingly.... For over 20 years the foundation of any healthy relationship more likely to aloof..., identify the various types of exogamy readily accommodate polygyny if it sororal... That individuals marry outside of their own race the degree to which land available. Taboo to some other members of each totem may only marry members of the other totem when production household-based... Over 20 years exchanging spouses between groups, individuals could gain access to new and necessary resources marrying outside their... It minimally includes siblings and parents online dictionaries, we want you to find your word & # ;. To be more conflict with limited breeding seasons some comparisons using theeHRAF World Culturesdatabase online,! Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the degree to which the wife and husband dependent... Various types of exogamous restrictions varies greatly across cultures and may need to allow cousin... By marrying outside of their respective owners communication which ultimately leads to greater mutual understanding and harmony between.... Informal processes be accomplished in other words, exogamy is viewed as ideal marriage partners provides man! A product of warfare, especially internal war ; Barber 2008 ) marriage.

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